The egg cases released by the female are made up of several layers of protein between which bacteria grow and serve as protection against fungal infection.

Taxonomic description

• Small open ocean mollusk possessing eight arms and two longer tentacles used for mating and prey capture. ^[1]
• Mix of iridescent white and purple, but can change colors in response to the environment. ^[1]
• Swims backwards through the water,  propelled by valves near the head. ^[1]
• Produces “ink,” a dark pigment released into the water to divert the attention of predators. ^[2]
• Reaches lengths of 30cm (12in). ^[2]

Distribution

• Ranges from southeastern Alaska to Bahia Asunción in Baja California, Mexico. ^[2]
• Most abundant through Punta Eugenia in Baja California, and Monterey Bay, California. ^[1]

Life history

• After mating, females release egg cases which are attached to the seafloor.
• Each case contains 200 to 300 eggs. ^[2]
• Larval squid hatch after 3-5 weeks. ^[2]
• Spawning occurs April – November in Northern California, and October – May in Southern California. ^[3]
• Reaches maturity six months after hatching. ^[4]
• Has a short life span, living an average of 188 days, 300 at most, and dying shortly after spawning. ^[4]

Habitat

• Found offshore, except during spawning which occurs in the near shore coastal waters. ^[2]
• Can be found in the water column from the surface to 792m (2,600ft) depths. ^[1]
• Is migratory, and forms massive schools. ^[1]
• Feeds on small crustaceans, fish and other squid. ^[2]
• Prey for marine mammals and large pelagic fish. ^[2]

Southern California, mainly around the Channel Islands, comprises 90% of squid landings!

Seasonal availability

• Available in San Diego from Sept-March. ^[5]

Regulatory and managing authority

• Managed federally by the NOAA fisheries and, as established by the Magnuson-Stevens Act, the Pacific Fishery Management Council (PFMC) through the Coastal Pelagic Species Fishery Management Plan (CPSFMP). ^[8]
• As established by the Marine Life Management Act, the California Fish and Game Commission (CFGC) regulates the fishery in state waters, and the California Department of Fish and Wildlife (CDFW) collects data and helps enforce FMP management rules for this fishery through the Pelagic Fisheries and Ecosystems Program. ^[5,8]
• The California Wetfish Producers Association combines input from the industry and government entities to inform regulatory and management measures for this fishery. ^[9]

Status of the fishery

• Sensitive to water temperatures – catch decreases with warming in El Niño years, increases with cooler waters of La Niña. ^[6]
• Was the largest California commercial fishery by volume in 1993 with 47,100 tons landed. ^[3]
• Became most valuable California fishery resource by 1996 at $33.3 million. ^[3]
• Demand for squid is largely dictated by overseas markets.
• The entire stock replaces itself semi-annually even in the absence of fishing, and is able to recover from drastic decreases in the population. ^[3]

Gear type

• Purse seine nets are laid out by seiner vessels to encircle and haul spawning schools.
• Brail vessels use hydraulic dip nets.
• Use of lights to attract squid to the surface is legal throughout California

Potential ecosystem impacts

• Attractant lights can disturb nesting seabirds; to circumvent this, wattage is limited and lights are shielded. ^[1]
• Haul chains and bottoms of purse-seines can scrape and drag against the seafloor, damaging the benthic ecosystem. ^[5,6]
• Bycatch is minimal, and is mostly composed of sardine, anchovy, or mackerel, but can occasionally include squid egg cases from the seafloor if nets are drawn in shallower waters. ^[1,6]
• The observed decrease in average length and weight of market squid (1999-2007) could affect population resilience as female fecundity increases with size. ^[3]

If overcooked, market squid has been said to taste "like a rubber band." If cooked properly, the meat is nutty, sweet, and delicate.

Edible portions

• The arms (tentacles), mantle (tube), and fins (wings) are all edible. ^[1]

Description of meat

• Raw squid should be moist, shiny, and ivory colored. ^[1]
• Once cooked, the meat turns white and has a mild, slightly sweet taste. ^[1]

Culinary uses 

• Can be thawed and then refrozen without damaging the meat. ^[7]
• Clean as much as possible before cooking, making sure to remove the cartilage inside the mantle.
• Gently rubbing the body of the squid with your thumbs will remove the thin layer of skin. ^[7]
• Common recipes feature the squid in pasta dishes, soups and stews.
• For a Lebanese-style calamari recipe, visit Eat Smarter. ^[10]
• For an Indonesian squid curry recipe, visit Selly's Corner. ^[11]

Nutritional information  

• Information about 100g of raw squid are on the table on the right. ^[1] 

Toxicity report

• No known toxins. ^[1]

Seasonal availability

• Available Sept — March, unless the catch limit is reached before end of the season. ^[1]

Although “cod” is in the name, the Lingcod is not related to true cod, but is actually in the greenling family Hexagrammidae.

Taxonomic description

• Has an elongate body that can grow to be five feet and eighty pounds. ^[1]
• Grey, brown and greenish blotched coloring on its back helps them camouflage with the environment. ^{[1, 3, 4]}
• Underside is lighter in color. ^[6] 
• Large head and mouth have gives it the nickname of “buckhead”. ^[1]
• Has eighteen large, sharp, canine-like teeth. ^[6]

Distribution

• With largest populations around British Columbia and Washington, ranges from the Gulf of Alaska down to Baja California. ^[1,4,5,6]

Life history

• Males generally live up to fourteen years, and females up to twenty years. ^[6]
• Sexual maturity is reached at about two years for males and three years for females. ^[1]
• Males become territorial in areas fit for spawning and though females are rarely observed in these areas, it is believed that they visit the area just long enough to deposit eggs throughout winter and spring. ^[1]
• After eggs are deposited (often in crevices), the males guard them from eight to ten weeks to protect them from numerous predators. ^[1]

Habitat

• As an adult, it lives along the rocky seafloor among seaweed, kelp, and eelgrass and preys on bottom dwelling fish, squid, crab, octopus, and smaller lingcod. ^[1]
• Larvae live closer to the top of the water column and feed on zooplankton. ^[1]
• In addition to cryptic coloration, lingcod will hide among rocks, in holes, and under overhangs in an attempt to avoid predatory threats such as sharks, marine mammals, and larger lingcod. ^[1]
• Being both a predator and prey, lingcod holds an important role as a secondary and tertiary consumer in the ecosystem. ^[7]

 Lingcod are frequently bycatch of bottom longline and salmon troll fisheries

Seasonal availability

• Available year round. ^[1]

Managing authority

• Managed federally by the NOAA fisheries and, as established by the Magnuson-Stevens Act, the Pacific Fishery Management Council (PFMC) through the Pacific Coast Groundfish Fishery Management Plan (FMP). ^{[1, 5]}
• As established by the Marine Life Management Act, the California Fish and Game Commission (CFGC) regulates the fishery in state waters, and the California Department of Fish and Wildlife (CDFW) manages this fishery. ^[10]
• The California Groundfish Collective combines input from the industry and government entities to inform regulatory and management measures for this fishery. ^[11]

Gear type

• Fishing methods include gang trolls, bottom longline with hooks, rod and reel, hook and line troll, and bottom trawl. ^{[1, 3, 4]}
• Along the West Coast, lingcod is generally harvested in trawls with other groundfish. ^[1]
• Also frequently bycatch of bottom longline and salmon troll fisheries. ^[1]

Status of the fishery

• Based on stock assessments in 2017, Pacific Coast lingcod is not overfished. ^[1] 
• From 2016 catch data, it has been determined that Pacific Coast lingcod is not subject to overfishing. ^[1]
• Gear innovations and better understanding of fishing behavior has helped avoid bycatch. ^[2]
• Similar regulations and management strategies are enforced in Alaskan waters by the State of Alaska through the Department of Alaska Fish and Game Commercial Regulations for Lingcod. ^[1,5]

Potential ecosystem impacts

• Trawls that come into contact with the ocean bottom effect the habitat, as they can tear apart the substrate and living components along the seafloor. Damage is decreased when lingcod over soft, sandy, or muddy floors is targeted. ^[1]

The cheeks of a lingcod are considered a delicacy

Edible portions

• Usually eaten with head and skin removed. ^[4,8]

Description of meat

• The raw flesh has a blue-green tint, but turns white when cooked. ^{[1,2, 3,4]}
• Meat is tender and firm, with large, soft, moist, mild-tasting flakes. ^[1,4]

Culinary uses 

• Available fresh and frozen as skinless and boneless fillets, H&G (headed and gutted), and steaks. ^{[4, 8]}
• View prep instructions for baked lingcod with lemon-garlic butter sauce--shown above. ^[9]
• Commonly baked, broiled, fried, grilled, sautéed, and steamed. ^{[4, 8]}
• For a recipe for baked lingcod with lemon-garlic butter, visit Simply Recipes. ^[12]
• For a smoked lingcod recipe, visit Bradley Smoker. ^[13]

Nutritional information 

• Nutrition facts given for one 100 gram serving of raw Lingcod. ^[1]
• A good source of low-fat protein. ^[1]
• Has high levels of vitamin B12 and selenium. ^[1]

Toxicity report 

• Mercury levels in lingcod are considered to be elevated, so moderate consumption is recommended. ^[2]

Seasonal availability

• Available year-round. ^[1,8]

This shark is ovoviviparous, which means that the eggs develop and hatch inside the female and she gives birth to live babies.

Taxonomic description

• Slender bodied with a pair each of triangular dorsal fins and pectoral fins; distinctive dark spots and saddle-like markings on dorsal side, giving the shark its name. ^[1]
• Adult length ranges from 1.2-1.5 m (4-5 ft); size at birth 18-20 cm (7-8 in), and mature at 0.7-1.3 m (2-4 ft). ^[1]

Distribution

• Found in the Eastern Pacific, from Oregon to Baja California, Mexico, and into the Gulf of California. ^[1]

Life history

• Males live to at least 24 years old and females live to at least 20 years old.  ^[1]
• Maturity for males is reached between 7-13 years and females between 10-15 years of age. ^[1]
• Little is know about its mating behavior, with only one documented observation of mating in the wild, 19 m from shore and in 1-3 m (3-9 ft.) depth water in La Jolla, California in August 2003. Mating is said to take place after spring birthing. ^[1]
• Females gives birth to 7-36 live young between March and July, peaking in April and May, after an estimated 10-12 month gestation period. ^[1]

Habitat

• Primarily found in water less than 18 m (60 ft) in depth but seen as deep as 83 m (273 ft). ^[1]
• Found year round along the open coast, particularly in kelp forests, rocky reefs, and near sandy beaches. ^[1]
• A nomadic active swimmer that may form schools segregated by size and sex. ^[1]
• Movements are tidal related, moving inshore to feed during high tide. It retreats to deeper water during low tide. ^[1]
• Aggregates with other elasmobranchs (e.g., bat ray, smoothhound sharks, sevengill sharks). ^[1]
• Opportunistic, feeds on a wide variety of primarily benthic prey but adults also eat anchovy, herring, sculpins, croakers, surfperch, rockfish, and small elasmobranches. Diet varies by location, season, and age.
• Preyed upon by other sharks, such as the sevengill shark and great white shark, and by sea lions.

This shark is targeted by recreational anglers, small-scale commercial fisheries, and marine aquaria collectors in ocean waters adjacent to California.

Seasonal availability

• Available year-round. ^[6]

Regulatory and managing authority

• Managed federally by the NOAA fisheries and, as established by the Magnuson-Stevens Act, the Pacific Fishery Management Council (PFMC) through the Pacific Coast Groundfish Fishery Management Plan (FMP). ^[4]
• As established by the Marine Life Management Act, the California Fish and Game Commission (CFGC) regulates the fishery in state waters, and the California Department of Fish and Wildlife (CDFW) manages this fishery. ^[1]
• The California Groundfish Collective combines input from the industry and government entities to inform regulatory and management measures for this fishery. ^[7]

Gear type

• Can be caught by gill nets, troll, longline, and hook and line. ^[4]

Status of the fishery

• Low numbers of this species were reported in 1986, mainly in San Francisco, due to over fishing; catch restrictions set shortly after including a size limit of 36 in (0.9 m), a catch limit of 3, as well as boating and depth laws and gear regulations. ^[1,4]
• Little is known about the size of the fishery and/or population relative to the size prior to 1992-1995 regulations. ^[1]
• Most caught and reported are recreational, non-commercial fishers. ^[1]
• There is currently no concern over the status of populations in California; numbers estimated to be stable with catch restrictions in place. ^[1]

Potential ecosystem impacts

• Regulation established in 1992 has helped populations recover in San Francisco Bay and beyond. ^[1]

Unlike the dark, meaty texture of most shark, this one is white and flakey!

Edible portions

• The meat is edible. ^[2]

Description of meat

• White, firm, juicy, and more tightly flaked than most fish. ^[2,8]

Culinary uses

• As a firm fish, it holds up well to grilling and frying. ^[2,8]
• For a Spanish shark with tomato recipe, visit Hunger Angler Gardener Cook. ^[8]
• For an Italian recipe for leopard shark, visit Master Tech. ^[9]

Nutritional information 

• Nutritional information for this species could not be found, reported is mixed species of small sharks. ^[5]
• Good source of protein, niacin, vitamin B6, vitamin B12, omega-3 and -6 fatty acids, phosphorus, and selenium. ^[5]
• Nutrition values are listed in table. ^[5]

Toxicity report

• Because leopard shark has mercury and PCB's, it is generally recommended to eat at most one serving per week. Refer to OEHHA for regional recommendations. ^[3]
• Although not toxic, sharks can develop an ammonia smell and taste if handled improperly--to avoid this, gut and bleed the shark immediately after catching and put on ice. ^[2,8]

Seasonal availability

• Year round availability. ^[6]

Kellet’s whelk feeds using a prehensile proboscis that extends about twice the length of the shell to reach food in crevices.

Taxonomic description

• One of the largest sea snails found in southern California. ^[1]
• Has a spindle shaped, spiraled shell that can reach 18 cm (7”) in length. ^[1]
• Shell ranges in color from white to tan with brown spiral lines, but as it ages the shell gets covered with light green or purple algae and other encrusting organisms. ^[1]
• The foot tissue is colored yellow with a few black stripes and white spots. 

Distribution

• Found from central Baja California, Mexico to Point Conception, California. ^[1]

Life history

• Much is still unknown about its life cycle.
• Growth rates for this species are not well studied, but are thought to be slow at 0.75-1 cm (0.3“ to 0.4”) per year until sexual maturity; and only 9 cm (3.5”) after 20 years. ^[1]
• Females become sexually mature between 6.6 - 7.1 cm (2.6 - 2.8”), slightly smaller for males. ^[1]
• Fertilization is internal with annual spawning periods March – May. ^[2]
• Disc-like egg capsules are deposited on hard substrate with fertilized embryos inside that develop and emerge into the water column as free swimming larvae for an unknown amount of time. ^[2]

Habitat

• Commonly found in kelp forests and on rocky reef habitats, on both rocky, hard, and sandy, soft substrates. ^[1]
• Usually found in depths from 0 m (0 ft) down to 69 m (230 ft). It is rarely found in the intertidal zone, although it is occasionally at lowest elevations or in tide pools. ^[1,2]
• It is an opportunistic carnivore that feeds on dead or dying organisms on the sea floor ^[1] or will actively pursue prey such as turban snails. ^[2]
• Predators include the moon snail, sea stars, octopus, and sea otters. ^[1]
• Can be seen feeding alongside its predator the giant sea star.

Whelk landings in California likely pre-date 1979, but started to steadily increase in 1993 with the highest take in 2006 at 87 metric tons (the cargo capacity of a Boeing 747)! 

Seasonal availability

• In California, open season from July 1 through the first Wednesday after March 15th unless the Total Allowable Catch of 45,360 kg (100,000 lbs) for the season is reached or projected to be reached in which case the fishery closes. ^[1]

Regulatory and managing authority

• As established by the Marine Life Management Act, the California Fish and Game Commission regulates this fishery, and the California Department of Fish and Wildlife manages this fishery in state waters through the CDFW’s Invertebrate Management Project. ^[8,9,10]

Gear type

• Caught as bycatch in lobster and crab traps: In 2008, 98% of all harvested Kellet’s whelks were taken via lobster and crab traps. ^[1]  
• Also harvested by hand by licensed commercial fishermen (divers collect further than 305 m or 1000 ft beyond the low tide mark).

Status of the fishery

• The commercial fishery is relatively new; minimal information on the impact of recent increased commercial demands.
• Potentially vulnerable to overfishing due to slow growth rates and need for relatively high density for aggregate spawning. 
• If Total Allowable Catch limits are coupled with collaborative data collections & management decisions, responsible growth of this fishery should continue.
• Not yet assessed in common sustainable seafood guides (e.g., NMFS Fish Stock Sustainability Index, Monterey Bay Aquarium Seafood Watch, NOAA Fishwatch).

Potential ecosystem impacts

• Intensive removal of this predaceous whelk may increase numbers of its prey--grazers of kelp & other seaweeds (e.g., urchins, limpets, and snails) ^[3], which can lead to seaweed overgrowth in rocky reefs & kelp forests. ^[4]
• Collection methods are low impact, as hand (diver) collection have virtually no impact, but traps can cause damage to the seafloor in rough conditions.

Prehistoric snack? Kellet’s whelk shells have been found in archeological and paleontological sites in Southern California.

Edible portions

• Typically only the muscular foot, which is similar to abalone, is eaten.

Description of meat

• The meat is firm and chewy if untenderized, firm and tender once tenderized.
• This whelk is known to be juicy and salty. ^[6]

Culinary uses 

• The meat is usually removed from shell for use. ^[7]  
• To tenderize, meat may be frozen for 5 min, pounded, or pressure cooked.
• Only minimal cooking is required, about 10-15 min in boiling salt water.
• It can be served from the shell after lightly boiling.  
• This whelk is used in soups, chowders, fish pies, pasta dishes & seafood salads.
• For a recipe for Italian scungilli with linguine, visit Antonio's. ^[11]
• For a recipe for whelk salad with shiso leaves and spring onion, visit Umami Diary. ^[12]

Nutritional information  

• Whelk, cooked, moist heat (3 oz). ^[5]

Toxicity report

• No known toxins.

Seasonal availability

• Available fresh from July – March. ^[1]

This fish is highly productive! It is a serial spawner, with females laying an average of about 34,000 eggs per spawning event.

Taxonomic description

• Scientific name means “naturally formed rough tail”.
• Average length of 55 cm (21.6 in). ^[3]
• Color ranges from metallic blue to olive green. ^[4]
• Dorsal fin has 8 spines followed by 31 to 33 rays. ^[4]

Distribution

• Found from the Eastern Pacific, from Southeast Alaska to Southern Baja California, Mexico, as well as in the Gulf of Mexico. ^[3]

Life history

• Eggs and larvae are commonly encountered beyond 320 km (200 mi) offshore. ^[5]
• Lives up to 30 years. ^[6]
• Matures at a relatively young age of one to three years. ^[6]
• Has the lowest adult natural mortality compared to every other pelagic schooling species in the same region. ^[5]

Habitat

• Adults are often found offshore- can be up to 800 km (500 mi) offshore, 400 m (1310 ft) deep. ^[3]
• Prefers subtropical regions at 8 degrees Celsius. ^[3]
• Found within mixed schools consisting of sardine, Pacific mackerel, and anchovy. ^[6]
• Primarily feeds on large zooplankton, juvenile squid, and anchovy. ^[2]
• Preyed on by larger tuna, billfish, and marine mammals. ^[7]
• A 1980’s decline in availability of Pacific and Jack mackerel ^[5]  led to rapid expansion in the 1990s of the market squid and sardine fisheries in Southern CA. ^[5]

This fish is regulated along with other coastal pelagic fish, such as northern anchovy, market squid, Pacific sardine, and Pacific mackerel. 

Seasonal availability

• Primarily caught from December through April. ^[5]

Regulatory and managing authority

• The Jack mackerel fishery is managed federally by NOAA fisheries and, as established by the Magnuson-Stevens Act, the Pacific Fishery Management Council (PFMC) through the Coastal Pelagic Species Fishery Management Plan (CPSFMP). ^[8]
• As established by the Marine Life Management Act, the California Fish and Game Commission (CFGC) regulates the fishery in state waters, and the California Department of Fish and Wildlife (CDFW) collects data and helps enforce FMP management rules for this fishery through the Pelagic Fisheries and Ecosystems Program. ^[13,14]
• The California Wetfish Producers Association combines input from the industry and government entities to inform regulatory and management measures for this fishery. ^[15]

Gear type

• Generally targeted with “round-haul” gear ^[8], such as purse seines, drum seines, lampara nets, and dip nets. ^[8]
• Also caught incidentally ^[8] in midwater trawls, pelagic trawls, gillnets, trammel nets, pots, and with trolls, hook-and-line, and jigs. ^[8]

Status of the fishery

• Peak catch occurred in 1953, bringing in 70,000 metric tons of yield. ^[6]
• Since 1991, catch averages have been less than 2,000 tons each year, composing only about 2% of CPS landings. ^[5]
• Acceptable Biological Catch (ABC) are allocated depending on distribution in US (65 percent). ^[8]

Potential ecosystem impacts

• Assessed with “Least Concern” in northeastern Pacific, there is no current indication of widespread population decline. ^[9]
• Midwater gear has minimal impact on environment because it does not contact seafloor. ^[1]

Some of the best barbeque fish are Mackerel species.

Edible portions

• The flesh is edible.
• The bones can be eaten if in canned form (boiled).

Description of meat

• Tastes similar to sardine.
• Dense, rich and oily.

Culinary uses

• Can be fried, baked, poached, grilled, marinated, smoked and barbecued. ^[1]
• Sold fresh, smoked, canned and frozen. ^[3]
• For a recipe for barbequed mackerel, visit BBC's Good Food. ^[10]
• A demonstration on how to filet and make mackerel sushi can be found on YouTube. ^[12]

Nutritional information 

• Nutritional facts shown for drained, canned, jack, mackerel. ^[11]

Toxicity report

• Mackerel should be put on ice once taken out of the water, otherwise it will spoil quickly and can develop bacteria that leads to scombrid poisoning. ^{[12, 16]}

Seasonal availability

• Year round.

It has a dark spot over the gill that may serve as a ‘fake eye’ to distract or confuse predators

Taxonomic description

• Tail fin shape looks like a crescent moon, hence its name. ^[13]
• Oval body and typically dark blue in color ^[9], dark spot just above gill opening ^[14], looks similar to opaleye. ^[1]
• Matures at around 20-34 cm (8-13 in.), but can reach up to 50 cm (~20 in.). ^[2]
• Scales are small, thick and rough. ^[14]

Distribution

• Ranges from Gulf of California to Vancouver Island, British Columbia. ^[9]

Life history

• Typically lives from 1-8 years. ^[14]
• Sexually mature at about 2 years old, internal fertilization, spawns eggs during July to October. ^[14]
• Fertilized eggs and hatched larvae float in the water column as plankton. ^[14]
• Juveniles typically school together and are sometimes found mixed with pile perch schools of 15-50 members. ^{[14, 6]}

Habitat

• Typically inhabits shallow rocky areas, kelp beds and floating kelp paddies. ^[9]
• Common predators include sea lions, larger fish, and, specifically at the Santa Catalina Island, bald eagles. ^[14]
• Susceptible to disturbances that influence its kelp forest home, like habitat degradation and pollution. ^[4]

This fish will attach to anything it thinks is food, even if the item doesn’t remotely look like food. 

Seasonal availability

• Available from August to April. ^[19]

Regulatory and managing authority

• As it is sometimes caught as bycatch by fisheries targeting other species, this species is not included in any specific fishery management plan, but still falls under the jurisdiction of CDFW and CFGC as per the Marine Life Management Act. ^[8]

Gear type

• Mostly hook and line, with some incidental catch in traps and round haul nets. ^[8]
• For bait and tackle, this fish prefers mussels or small crabs. ^[7]

Status of the fishery

• There are no regulations specific to this species; before 1976, catch of this species was grouped into the category of ‘surf perch,’  a more popular species, but now catch is reported separately. ^[8]
• Despite dips and peaks since 1970, there was overall decline in amount of halfmoon perch caught per year, with 0 pounds reported 1996-2002 ^[12] due to poor documentation, and perch species were often unspecified. ^[8]
• The IUCN Red List classifies halfmoon perch as “least concern” throughout its range. ^[5]
• The recreational fishery is larger than the commercial fishery for this species. ^[20]

Potential ecosystem impacts

• According to a Productivity Susceptibility Analysis, this species has a low risk of being impacted by fishing activities. ^[10]
• No significant ecosystem impacts known.

As an easy-to-cook fish and a healthy alternative protein source, perch tastes great baked.

Edible portions

• Can be eaten whole, scaled, and/or gutted. ^[18]

Description of meat

• Has light, white, mild flavored meat, similar to surfperch. ^{[12, 7]}

Culinary uses

• Available fresh and whole. ^[18]
• Often baked, grilled, breaded and fried, or sautéed. ^[16]
• For preparation instructions, visit Livestrong. ^[3]
• For recipe ideas, visit Food.com. ^[18]

Nutritional information

• One perch fillet is measured in the nutritional facts label. ^[17]
• It is rich in healthy levels of omega-3 fats and Vitamin B12. ^[17]

Toxicity report

• No toxins or dietary warnings. ^[6]

Seasonal availability

• Seasonal from August to April. ^[19]

Unlike many rays, a skate’s tail does not have a venomous spine.

Taxonomic description

• Has a pointed snout, a tail with a mid-dorsal spine, and a flat, rhomboidal body. ^[1] 
• Has olive-brown blotchy coloration on its dorsal side, and is mostly white on the underside. ^[2]
• Mature males are about 47 cm total length, and females about 52 cm total length. ^[16]

Distribution

• Found along the western coast of North America from central Baja, California up to the Straights of Juan de Fuca, Canada. ^[1]

Life history

• The female skate is estimated to live 8 years, male is estimated to live 7 years. ^[8]
• After internal fertilization, the female lays cases of oblong, horned eggs. ^[4]
• Reproduction peaks between September and November. ^[16]
• Young skates have tendencies to follow large figures like their mothers. ^[11]

Habitat

• Found along the soft bottom of inshore areas and bays. ^[7,11]
• Lives between depths of 17-1,600 meters, but most commonly 58-231 meters. ^[7,11,16]
• Found in waters between 8.2-9.6 degrees Celsius. ^[16]
• Preys on shrimp, crabs, and fishes. ^[4]

Skate is taken as a targeted species, but is also a common product of bycatch

Seasonal availability

• Available year round, with highest availability in summer and fall. ^[3,6]

Regulatory and managing authority

• Managed federally by the NOAA fisheries and, as established by the Magnuson-Stevens Act, the Pacific Fishery Management Council (PFMC) through the Pacific Coast Groundfish Fishery Management Plan (FMP). It is considered an Ecosystem Component Species under the Pacific Coast Groundfish FMP. ^[12,14]
• As established by the Marine Life Management Act, the California Fish and Game Commission (CFGC) regulates the fishery in state waters, and the California Department of Fish and Wildlife (CDFW) manages this fishery. ^[13]

Gear type

• Caught mostly by bottom trawl, but is also caught with longline, troll, pots, gillnets, and hook and line. ^[14]

Status of the fishery

• Considered to be of least concern because it is able to maintain population stability despite fishing pressures and regulations are in place that monitor and reduce fishing stresses. ^[16]
• The population is considered stable but with insufficient information,  and is regarded as a “data-limited stock”. ^[16]
• With the enforcement of the Marine Protection Act in California, trawling has been restricted, decreasing the catch of this skate. ^[16]  

Potential ecosystem impacts

• Bottom trawling is responsible for the most harmful impacts on marine ecosystems. ^[19]
• Trawling impacts formations and damages structure supporting organisms. ^[19]

Due to its mollusk and shellfish diet, its taste is similar to that of a shellfish- sweet and mild.

Edible portions

• The meat is located on the top and bottom of the cartilage plate through the middle of the wings. ^[3]

Description of meat

• Firm with a mild taste, but can have a stringy texture because of the wing structure. ^[3,5]
• When cooked, the slight pink color turns off white. ^[3,5]  

Culinary uses

• Sold as skin-on wings, skin-off wings, and fillets, but the skin is too tough to be edible. ^[6]
• Typically baked, deep fried, poached, or sautéed. ^[6]
• Enjoyed with capers, mushrooms, spinach and potatoes, tomatoes and beans, and in pastas. ^[9,10]
• For a recipe for baked skate wing with mushroom, shallot, and Gruyère cheese, visit Great British Chefs. ^[20]

Nutritional information 

• Nutritional information given for 100 grams (3.5 ounces) of ungarnished, unsauced skate. ^[5,15]

Toxicity report

• Fresh skate should not have an ammonia odor, discard if it has. ^[3]

Seasonal availability

• Skate is available year round and is most available in the summer and fall, but winter-caught skate is considered the best. ^[3,6]

This octopus is highly intelligent, and has learned to open jars, mimic other octopuses, and solve mazes in lab tests

Taxonomic description

• As the largest species of octopus in the world; average weight is 50 Kg (110 lbs) and length of 5 meters (15 ft). ^[4]
• Has a huge, bulbous head and is generally reddish-brown in color. ^[4]
• Uses special pigment cells, called chromatophores ^[6] in its skin to change colors and textures to camouflage very well. ^[4]
• When threatened, it secretes ink. ^[14]
• Can squeeze through small spaces and only limited by the size of its beak since that is the hardest part of its body. ^[11]

Distribution

• Found throughout the temperate waters of the Pacific, from Southern California to Alaska, west to the Aleutian Islands and Japan. ^[4]

Life history

• Life span is 3-5 years ^[17]
• Hatches from an egg, floats to the ocean’s surface, and experiences a planktonic stage for 30-90 days. ^[6]
• About one percent of the planktonic larvae survive ^[2] because many are lost to predators ^[3], but once settled to the sea floor, juvenile octopuses grow rapidly and have a significantly higher survival rate. ^[17]
• Sexually mature at 1-2 years of age; mates in the spring ^[17]; males and females find each other, then use their senses of sight to determine attraction during courtship. ^[6]
• A male uses its ligula to place spermatophore into the female’s oviduct; entire mating process takes 3-4 hours. ^[6]
• Females lay 20,000 to 100,000 eggs in a den and tend to them throughout incubation (5-7 months). ^[17]
• After mating, males and females experience senescence (the final stage of the mating process and life cycle) during which they refuse to eat; males die within a few months after mating and females die shortly after the eggs hatch. ^[6]
• Predation or starvation is the usual cause of death. ^[6]

Habitat

• Lives in dens and caves ^[15] in intertidal zones to depths of 750 meters (2,500 ft). ^[3]
• Only the largest fish (such as halibut and ling cod) and marine mammals are any threat to adults. ^[3]
• Hunts at same depths in which it lives; newly hatched octopuses eat small organisms (copepods, larval crabs, and seastars); Adults feed on crabs, clams, snails, small fishes and other octopuses. ^[3]
• As it is generally nocturnal, it hunts at night. ^[11]
• The Giant Pacific octopus uses eight strong arms combined with suckers ^[6] to find and hold prey; it may paralyze prey such as fish with a toxic saliva, then tear into it with its parrot-like beak or simply pull the prey’s defenses apart (as with crab shells) to get at the meal within. ^[11]
• Humans use it as food, aquarium pets, and bait. ^[3]

This octopus can be caught in unbaited pots because it seeks out cavities for shelter.

Seasonal availability

• Potentially available year-round because there is no defined fishing season, and rock crab traps are set year round. ^[8]

Regulatory and managing authority

• As established by the Marine Life Management Act, the California Fish and Game Commission regulates the fishery, and the California Department of Fish and Wildlife manages this fishery in state waters. ^[19]
• As this fish is not a commercially targeted species, there are currently no formal management plans in place but this fishery is monitored. ^[8,13]

Gear type

• Octopi caught in commercial crab and lobster traps may be kept, but refer to the most recent regulations digest for the most up to date information. ^[13]
• Caught in rectangular wire lobster traps baited with fish and weighted down on the seafloor and around rocky underwater outcrops in water less than 31 m (100 ft) deep. ^[1]

Status of the fishery

• There is currently a lack of concern for stocks at current level of commercial exploitation. ^[13,15]
• Stock numbers appear healthy despite the lack of regulation. ^[15]

Potential ecosystem impacts

• Use of traps on the seafloor presents a risk of damage if traps are dragged or scraped on bottom, and potential entanglement of marine mammals in buoy lines. ^[9,10] 

Octopus will go from tender, to tough, then back to tender again during cooking. Most cooking methods involve cooking it quickly or cooking it for a long period of time.

Edible portions

• The arms are usually eaten, however the entire octopus is used in some recipes.

Description of meat

• Has a slightly sweet flavor and smooth, slimy texture when eaten raw. ^[5]
• When cooked, it retains some of its sweetness and has a meaty, crunchy texture. If undercooked or overcooked, it will be rubbery. ^[5,12]

Culinary uses

• Sold in a variety of forms, including fresh, frozen, dried, salted, and brined. When prepared fresh, it is often served alongside other seafood in stews, paella, and pasta dishes, but can also be prepared on its own (usually roasted or grilled). ^[14]
• Must be properly cleaned and sliced before it can be prepared; if the beak and head are still attached, then those parts should be removed. ^[12]
• If bought live, gloves are recommended since it can bite. ^[12]
• Long, slow cooking should always deliver tender results. The average simmering time should be about an hour for a 1lb (450g) octopus, two hours for a 4 lb (1.8kg) octopus, but that will vary. The best way to tell is to treat it like a potato: poke it with a knife and when it's ready it should feel as soft to the knife as a potato would. ^[12]

Nutritional information 

• Octopus is lean and low in calories. ^[16]
• Naturally low in fat but high in cholesterol. ^[7,16]
• High in healthy levels of iron, selenium, and vitamin B-12. ^[16]
• Nutritional values are listed in table. ^[18]

Toxicity report

• None known.

Seasonal availability

• Available year round. ^[13]

The escolar’s large eyes cause it to have extremely high optical sensitivity and thrive in deep dark waters.

Taxonomic description

• Reaches lengths of 2 meters (6 ft.) long ^[2], and can weigh up to 45 kg (99 lbs). ^[3]
• Has large eyes adapted to the dark, deep sea. ^[2]
• Has dark brown, grey, and black body color helps it to stay camouflaged in the mesopelgic light. ^[2]
• Its lower jaw slightly projects beyond the upper – 2 pairs of fang-like teeth in the upper jaw. ^[12]

Distribution

• Found worldwide in tropical and subtropical seas. ^[1,3]

Life history

• Reaches sexual maturity at 30-35 cm (11-14). ^[5]
• Peak catches in May and November indicate possible birth and feeding times. ^[9]
• May endure long migrations to feeding/reproductive areas but these activities are poorly understood. ^[14]
• Lifespan likely extends beyond 11 years. ^[14]

Habitat

• Lives in cold depths over 200 meters (656 ft.) during the day and migrates to the surface in tropical warm waters during the night. ^[2]
• Mainly caught in nearshore waters that have bottom ridges, steep drop-offs, or ledge features. ^[1,14]
• Likely is a slow moving, sit-and-wait predator that eats squid, crustaceans, and fishes (bramids, coryphaenids, scombrids, and trachipterids). ^[2,3,14]

Escolar is found in warm waters and is an incidental catch of the tuna fishing industry. 

Seasonal availability

• Available year round. ^[7]

Regulatory and managing authority

• Although there is no directed fishery for this species, escolar is caught as bycatch and is overseen by NOAA fisheries and, as established by the Magnuson-Stevens Act, the Pacific Fishery Management Council through the West Coast Highly Migratory Species Fisheries Management Plan. It is managed as an Ecosystem Component Species. ^[13]
• As established by the Marine Life Management Act, the California Department of Fish and Wildlife (CDFW) collects data on this fishery. ^[16]

Gear type

• There is a Pelagic longline fishery used in tropical oceans and the Pacific ocean, but is prohibited within 200 miles of the U.S coast. ^[5]
• Circle hooks ^[3], purse seine and observers are often used. ^[15]

Status of the fishery

• There is no specific fishery at the national or international level. ^[5]
• There is little information on the species and stocks ^[5,14], although populations are thought to fluctuate. ^[3]
• In the south Atlantic Ocean a decline in mean average weight suggests commercial fishing may be decreasing population ^[9] but the status of escolar appear to be stable elsewhere, suggesting no overfishing or other major threats. ^[1,3]

Potential ecosystem impacts

• Longline fishing often has issues with bycatch. ^[9,14]

Approximately 20% of an escolar’s body weight is made up of indigestible waxy esters, which can have a laxative and purgative effect on those that eat large quantities of this fish. 

Edible portions

• Dorsal loin muscle. ^[10]

Description of meat

• Has silky, soft white meat that is rich in flavor and fiber; approximately 66% moisture content. ^[8,11]                                        

Culinary uses 

• It is obtained fresh with skin off or on, whole or fillets, and should be eaten fresh within 2 days. If frozen it should be eaten on the day it is thawed. ^[11]
• Cooking methods: bake, broil, grill, poach, sauté, steam, and raw. ^[11]
• It is commonly used at sushi restaurants as sashimi or in rolls; can also be eaten as a fillet but not usually prepared in rich creams because of its high fat content. ^[11]
• For a sushi roll recipe using escolar, visit Secrets of Sushi. ^[17]
• For a recipe for grilled escolar, visit Emeril Lagasse. ^[18]

Nutritional information 

• Approximately 20% of the escolar’s body weight contains indigestible wax esters which cause laxative/purgative qualities. ^[1,10]
• It is high in energy due to the high fat content in muscles, and is a good source of protein. ^[10]

 Toxicity report

• There are low levels of histamine in escolar, so the US FDA co-manages the associated health risks by checking the market for histamine levels. ^[1]
• Because eating too much of escolar can have laxative effects, and because it has sometimes been mislabelled in some markets and restaurants by other fish names like tuna, sea bass, oilfish, and cod, escolar is banned in Italy and Japan. ^[3,11]
• To enjoy this fish without the laxative effects, eat no more than six ounces at a time. ^[3]

Seasonal availability

• Year round. ^[7]

Buries itself in the sand so much so that there are hairs at the base of the claws that keep the gill chamber free of sand to prevent suffocation

Taxonomic description

• Colors range from yellowish brown to purple, and has an oval carapace that can reach 25 cm (9.8 in) in width, although it is typically under 20 cm (7.9 in). ^[3]
• Has four pairs of walking legs and a pair of claws with light colored, hooked tips and serrated teeth. ^[3]
• Can weigh up to 2 kg (4 lbs). ^[3]

Distribution

• Found from Alaska's Aleutian Islands to Point Conception, near Santa Barbara, Californi. ^[4]
• Occasionally found as far south as Magdalena Bay, Baja California Sur, Mexico. ^[4]

Life History

• Maximum life expectancy is 8 to 13 years, but commercially caught individuals are usually about 4 years old. ^[4]
• Adults tend to molt simultaneously; females in the spring, males in the late summer. ^[3]
• In the first 2 years, it may molt as many as 7 times per year, but only molts once a year when mature. ^[3]
• Populations undergo cyclic fluctuations due to varying oceanic conditions including currents, ocean temperature, and food availability. ^[4]
• Males mate with female crabs after they molt in the late spring and summer, but the eggs are not immediately fertilized. Viable sperm can remain in a female until the eggs are fully developed. ^[3]
• Many females, especially larger crabs that molt less frequently, do not reproduce annually. ^[3]

Habitat

• Adults prefer eelgrass beds, and sandy or muddy bottom areas. Juveniles frequent shallow estuarine areas with protective structures such as pilings or woody debris and avoid habitat overlap with the adult crabs. ^[3]
• Lives at variable depths from the intertidal zone to 230m but is most abundant above 90-m depth. ^[3]
• Claws used for defense and to tear apart large food items. ^[3]
• As with most decapods, smaller oral appendages pass food particles into the mouth; and a gastric mill (collection of tooth-like structures) inside the stomach aids digestion. ^[3]
• As an adult, feeds primarily on bivalves, crustaceans, and fish; as a juvenile it feeds on fish, shrimp, mollusks and crustaceans. Uses claws to chip away at shells until open. ^[3]
• Predators include seals, sea lions, a variety of fish, and humans. ^[3]
• Can be impacted by many chemicals found in urban runoff, including insecticides, pesticides, and herbicides. ^[5]

As one of California’s oldest commercial fisheries, the dungeness crab fishery has been regulated by State Legislature since 1895.

Seasonal availability

• Typically, fishing is allowed from December 1 – July 15 in No. California and Nov 15—June 30 in So. California, but the season may open as late as March depending upon pre-season determinations of proper meat to total crab weight ratio and low toxicity levels (safe for consumption). ^[7]

Regulatory and managing authority

• As established by the Magnuson-Stevens Act, the Pacific States Marine Fisheries Commision oversees this fishery along the Pacific West Coast, and the California Department of Fish and Wildlife (CDFW) manages this fishery in state waters. ^[1]
• The California Dungeness Crab Task Force, a member of the Tri-state Dungeness Crab Committee, combines input from the industry and government entities to inform regulatory and management measures for this fishery. ^[8]

Gear type

• Caught in California using pots made from two circular iron frames connected with spokes on the outer edges. ^[7]
• Each pot must have two entrance tunnels with bars to ensure only larger adults are trapped. ^[7]
• Pots are equipped with a device that allows the eventual escape of all crabs if the trap is lost. ^[7]

Status of the fishery

• Dungeness crab is not overfished, but there is moderate concern over current relatively-high fishing levels; statewide landings have consistently increased over the last 50 years, with 4 of 5 record seasons having occurred over the last decade. ^[4]
• There is no active stock assessment program in California, but an updated stock assessment is underway as of 2019. ^[4]
• Annual catch is used as a proxy for population size because populations are considered to be at or near full exploitation. ^[4]
• Uncertainty surrounds the stability of this fishery because of a lack of population data, including how distributions vary in space and time, and the effects of a changing environment on population dynamics. ^[4]

Potential ecosystem impacts

• Interactions between the crab fishery and humpback whale are limited temporally, with most crab fishing occurring before whale migration in the region, but recent delays of season-opening have caused increased interactions. ^[4]
• In 2016, 71 whales became entangled in Dungeness crab pots off of Oregon, Washington, and California. Senate Bill 1309, new legislation passed in 2018, includes language that aims to decrease these negative interactions in coming years. ^{[7, 8]}
• The effects of the removal of large quantities of crab would have some impact on benthic coastal species diversity, abundance, and community structure but this has not been studied extensively. ^[4]

It has a sweeter flavor than snow or king crabs and, typically, 1⁄4 of the crab’s weight is meat.

Edible Portions

• The claws are the most widely consumed part of the crab. The large claw muscle makes up the largest section of meat and is more easily cracked than other commonly eaten crabs. ^[10]
• The meat of the legs, which is easily separated from the soft shell, and body, which is accessed by cracking the shell in half lengthwise, are also consumed. ^[10]
• Although the shell is not edible, it can be broken and used in a fish stock for chowder or soup bases.
• One whole crab yields around 0.5 pounds of meat. ^[15]

Description of Meat

• Meat is sweet and mild, with tender body and slightly firmer leg and claw meat. ^[10]

Culinary Uses

• This crab is sold live, fresh, or frozen as a whole crab, and fresh or frozen picked meat. It can also be eaten whole or cracked steamed, chilled, or roasted.
• Common culinary uses also include its use in soups, crabcakes, and salads. Recipe suggestions at Sonoma Magazine. ^[11]
• Cooking instructions at Instructables cooking. ^[12]

Nutritional Information

• Nutritional information for Dungeness Crab is displayed (right). ^[13]
• Considered a great source of protein while remaining low in fat and calories. ^[13]

Toxicity Report

• Domoic acid, a product of harmful algal blooms, can be found in the viscera (guts) of crabs during blooms; avoid eating during periods of bloom, remove viscera before cooking, and/or check for warnings. ^[2,14]

Seasonal Availability

• It is available fresh during season, late fall until mid-summer. ^[1,10]